Automated submissions accounted for more than three-quarters of responses to the UK government's 2023 consultation on tobacco and vaping regulations, with almost all the bot-generated entries opposing proposed restrictions on disposable vapes, a new study has found.
The study, published in the journal Tobacco Control, analysed responses to the consultation on creating a smoke-free generation and tackling youth vaping, identifying what researchers described as the first documented instance of large-scale automated interference in a formal public health policy consultation.
Of the 118,756 responses received, the Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC) identified 90,835, or 76.5 per cent, as fraudulent using bot-detection methods.
Of these automated submissions, 90,833 disagreed with the proposal to prohibit the sale and supply of disposable vapes. The same number indicated that they had learnt about the consultation through social media.
The findings suggest that the automated responses could have substantially distorted the apparent public reaction to the proposals had they not been identified and excluded.
After the bot-generated submissions were removed, 79.6 per cent of valid respondents supported restrictions on disposable vape sales, according to the researchers.
By contrast, including all responses would have made it appear that 81.3 per cent of respondents opposed restrictions on disposable vape sales.
The research was conducted by Nason Maani of the University of Edinburgh and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, and Anna Gilmore of the University of Bath.
The authors said the scale and consistency of the automated responses suggested a coordinated campaign, although they could not establish its source, intent or commercial sponsorship.
Disposable vape restrictions were the main target
The researchers obtained information through Freedom of Information Act requests and an analysis of published government consultation reports.
The DHSC did not disclose the specific methods it used to identify fraudulent submissions. However, its consultation report said the responses were often duplicated many times and submitted at high frequency from a small number of IP addresses.
The information released following the researchers' request showed that the bot-flagged submissions consisted entirely of multiple-choice selections, with no free-text answers.
Almost all the automated responses were limited to three questions. Besides opposing restrictions on disposable vape sales, they indicated that the implementation period for the proposed measures should be at least six months.
The submissions also overwhelmingly reported social media as the source through which respondents had learnt about the consultation.
The authors said this pattern was consistent with a mass automated campaign designed to influence the consultation's outcome.
The consultation formed part of the government's 2023 plans to create a smoke-free generation and tackle youth vaping. The proposals included restrictions on disposable vapes, alongside measures relating to flavour, advertising and the affordability of vaping products.
The resulting Tobacco and Vapes Act received Royal Assent on 29 April 2026.
Industry involvement remains unproven
The researchers noted that tobacco companies had previously sought to influence public consultations through coordinated submissions.
They cited the UK consultation on standardised cigarette packaging, which received 668,433 responses, of which 665,989 were classified as campaign responses.
However, the authors stressed that they could not establish whether the automated vaping consultation submissions originated from commercial interests or identify any organisation responsible.
The study's findings therefore do not establish that a tobacco or vaping company commissioned or organised the bot activity.
The authors also acknowledged limitations in the evidence available to them. The DHSC withheld some information, including metadata and demographic details, and the researchers could not independently verify the department's bot-detection methods.
As the study examined a single consultation, its findings cannot automatically be generalised to other policy areas.
Nevertheless, the authors said the research highlighted the vulnerability of online public consultations to automated interference, particularly as artificial intelligence and other automated technologies become more sophisticated.
Calls for stronger safeguards
The researchers called for stronger safeguards to protect the integrity of public health policymaking as governments increasingly rely on online consultations.
They suggested technical measures such as limiting the frequency of submissions from individual IP addresses and using CAPTCHA tests to distinguish human respondents from automated programmes.
They also highlighted the importance of improving online security and screening for potential conflicts of interest.
The authors warned that consultations conducted by organisations with fewer resources or less developed screening systems could be particularly vulnerable to manipulation.
Although the automated responses in this case were identified and excluded from the final consultation findings, the researchers said similar campaigns could take place without public awareness.
They concluded that governments needed to continually improve their detection methods and consultation safeguards to maintain public trust and ensure that policy decisions were informed by genuine responses.